AIOU Solved Assignments 1 & 2 Code 8605 Autumn & Spring 2024. Solved Assignments code 8605 Educational Leadership and Management 2024. Allama iqbal open university old papers.
Course: Educational Leadership and Management (8605)
Level: B.Ed (1 1?2 & 23?2 Years)
Semester: Autumn & Spring 2024
ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q.1 Define ‘Educational Administration’ . Discuss the importance and scope of ‘Educational Administration’. Answer:
ADMINISTRATION IN THE EDUCATIONAL Educational administration refers to a range of professionals—from supervisors, program administrators, and principals to deans, department heads, and chief academic officers—as well as organizations formed to administer school functions. studies have focused on topics such as private-sector management of public schools and improving educational leadership to accelerate student achievement. Educational Administration is regarded as the process of integrating the appropriate human and material resources that are made available and made effective for achieving the purposes of a programme of an educational institution. The term “Administration” doesn’t refer to any single process or act. It is like a broad umbrella encompassing a number of processes such as: planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, controlling and evaluating the performance. The same situation occurs in the field of educational administration. The concept of educational administration is applicable in case of an educational organisation which has certain purposes or goals to fulfill. In order to achieve these purposes or goals, the head of the educational organisation plans carefully various programmes and activities. Here the educational organisation may be a school, college or university. The head of the school/college/university organizes these programmes and activities with co-operation from other teachers, parents and students. He/She motivates them and co- ordinates the efforts of teachers as well as directs and exercises control over them. He/She evaluates their performance and progress in achieving the purposes of the programme. He provides feedback to them and brings modification, if required in the plans and programmes of the school or college or university. So the totality of these processes which are directed towards realizing or achieving the purposes or goals of the school/college/university is called educational administration. Nature of Educational Administration: The Educational Administration has the following nature: 1. Educational administration doesn’t refer to any single process rather different processes or aspects constitute administration. These are planning, organizing, directing, Coordinating and evaluation. 2. Educational administration is a non-profit making task. 3. Educational administration is primarily a social enterprise as it is more concerned with human resources than with material resources. 4. Educational administration is more an art than a science. The reason is that human relationship prevailed here can’t be maintained by any set of formulae. 5. Educational administration is similar to general administration in many ways, but it is also dissimilar to general administration in many more ways. 6. Educational administration is a complex affair.
PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION TO IMPROVE THE SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN
Educational administration is considered as a decisive factor when it comes to manage a school or any other educative institute. But educational administration is not an isolated process because many factors converge to make it function and flow. Through the years different approaches have been applied and the results have been the result of those approaches. As the history has proved, these results widely influence future generations and government systems too. Students learn many of their social and personal skills through educational experiences and people in charge of schools prepare and guide what type of experiences they handle.
Because of the highly competitive model of globalization that rules in the world today, students need to develop new skills such as communication, informatics and innovation, among others. As the technology is also evolving at high speed, it is also necessary to be continually updated with the new advances. All that, require qualified teachers, administrators and supervisors at the schools who can deal with changes and help the students properly.
Principals Are At The Top Of The Hierarchy Of Management At Schools
They are considered as the most competent administrators. Traditionally, that competence was mainly associated to administrative decisions regarding structure, staff and students. Activities regarding school improvement and student learning were not fully handled by them. However, this situation has changed. Because of the complexity of the situation, principals have been forced to take control of that part of administration too.
How To Manage Human Resources
The main challenge for principals and managing staff is learning how to manage human resources. Distinct to handle physical resources, humans have emotions, feelings and demands according to their nature. When the administrators acknowledge and understand their staff and the rest of people, it is easier to manage and distribute tasks.
Applying democratic principles in the administration of education has become a trend, because it is preparing students to real life situations and it allows community members to get really involved. This exchange of experiences allows students to get exposure to the reality and schools, in general, improve their quality. In countries like Pakistan, there are some groups supporting the idea of installing democratic principles. One of them The Trust for Democratic Education and Accountability (TDEA), seeks to improve the education sector by applying those principles. This institute also supports other sectors by implementing democracy. These types of initiatives prove that democracy is expanding its influence in all areas of life. Therefore, it is very important that student begin to learn how to handle themselves in a democratic way. Schools prepare them to cope with the situations they will face at some points in their lives.
AIOU Solved Assignment 1 & 2 Code 8605 Autumn & Spring 2024
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Q.2 Explain the basic principles of Educational Administration. Answer:
Basic Principles of Educational Administration a) Principle of Democratic Leadership Leadership is derived not from status or power under the law but from the situation by showing ability to deal with the problems. The supervisor, as a leader, does not impose his whims but arrives at certain conclusions through group thinking and cooperative decision-making. “It means a sharing responsibility for achieving a successful outcome rather than throwing the weight of authority behind a wrong judgment”. In this principle there is a fact that teacher should be involved in full, fair and frank discussion based upon a mutual recognition of the personal worth of the other person. Such a discussion must reach specific conclusions and concrete proposals, set down in writing so that the teachers and the supervisor can check progress from time to time. b) Principle of Co-operation Co-operation implies: i. Participation in an activity to attain a certain goal, and ii. A sense of responsibility on the part of the teacher that he is a co-worker, not a slave. It assumes that the best solution of any problem is not known to any single person but it can be knows through mutual help and discussion. Even if the supervisor knows a better method of teaching a unit or organizing a class of pupils, he does not hand it down to the teacher dogmatically. He simply discussed the problem with the teacher, thinks with him of the various possible solutions, helps him to make a choice and encourage him to implement the decision which they have mutually arrived at. Such a cooperative effort raised teacher’s morale encourages creativity and develops a xxii
sense of responsibility on his part. It also develops a climate in which teachers tend to change. c) Principle of Scientific method This principle focuses attention upon getting the facts, upon analyzing the situation, as it exists and upon drawing objective conclusions. The supervisor should use the scientific method in making decisions as well as in determining needs, examining resources, planning procedures and evaluating results. d) Principle of Coordination This principle assumes that a school or a group of schools is so such organized that all teachers work as coordinated parts rather than individuals. It, however, does not mean that the individuals should lose their identities. There is need for coordinating instructional work and other activities in a certain subject through all the schools classes as well as in various subjects in the same classes. Without such an effort on the part of the supervisor the main purpose of education, i.e. balanced development of child’s personality cannot be achieved. Another important implication of this principle is that school and community efforts to provide formal and non-formal learning experiences to the children, who should also have the same focus and direction. Supervision must play an important role in coordinating school and community efforts as well. e) Principle of Flexibility this principle implies that rules, procedures and standards should be adjustable to meet the requirements changing conditions. Not only that each individual is different from the other but the same individual may reach a goal with different ways in similar situations and at different times. The supervisor must recognize and respect individual differences in teachers, as should the later do in respect of children. He should also adjust supervisory activities according to the
individual needs of teachers. The principles of flexibility do not mean lowering the standards; it simply means an adjustment of an arrangement or method so as to create a more favourable environment for an individual’s growth and improvement. It also means that the teacher should be provided with a variety of instructional aids and materials, that the standards and the procedures should be so modified as to fit different schools and communities (in urban and rural areas), and that supervisor must be fully aware of the personal and professional problems of every teacher to be able to provide individual guidance.
f) Principle of Planning Successful accomplishment of the objectives of an organization implies planning. Planning
involves both deciding what to do and determining how this is to be done i.e. identification of
the objectives and laying out of the alternatives for the achievements of the objectives.
Effective supervision, too, depends, for its success, on careful planning. Planning is a
cooperative enterprise. Besides clear vision of goals and foresight of consequences, planning
must be based on the thinking of the persons concerned, their needs and aspirations.
To quote Ayer, “a supervisor without a plan has no point of departure and no destination” some
of the reasons given by him for supervisory planning are that:
1. The supervisor should have thought the situation, analyzed it selected for his attention the
weak sports new needs;
2. He has conceived before-hand professional activities directed to the achievement of certain
definite objectives.
3. He has provided for the coordination o the work of all; and
4. He has developed a basis for evaluation
g) Principle of Evaluation
Evaluation is one of the basic functions of supervision. It is more than testing pupils or rating
teachers. It aims at the improvement of persons, and products involved. It is a process of
making judgment by which more planning for improvement is possible. To be effective the
supervisor must be able to evaluate school situations as well as his own role in the
professional growth of teachers. He should have developed evaluative criteria with the
cooperation of teachers to assess teaching, learning and supervision.
Meaning and Spirit of Islamic Administration
The Holy Quran is the real basis of Islamic life and its actual legislation is very limited. Muslims
are free to legislate as needs arise, in the spirit of social justice. The few laws in the Holy
Quran are often permissive and give large latitudes to suit any change in circumstances.
Qamarudin Khan, Professor of Islamic History, Karachi University, is of the opinion that “the
Holy Quran does not aim to create a state but to create a society”. So whatever clearly stated
laws given by Allah (SW.T) and His messenger about life and society. No one is allowed to
deviate from them even by a hair’s breath. Calling the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) the ideal
philosopher – king, who surpasses in both theory and practice the qualities which Plato sought
in his ideal, are found from a famous Hadith of the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) as the founder
and theoretician of administration of Islamic.
state had a unique position as its executive head. In fact he was a legislator (through divine
revelation as well his personal pronouncements and practice all of which acquired a sacred
character for the Muslims), executive as well as a jurist. He was not answerable to any one as
for as the revealed commands were concerned. But, in the absence of divine revelations, it
was his wont to consult his companions. In fact he was command by Allah (S.W.T) to do so.
The Holy Quran commands the Prophet “And consult them (i.e. those around you) in
(important) matters.
So the two essential and primary ingredients of the Islamic administration theory are the
Ummah and the Shari’ah. These concepts are clearly elaborated in the Holy Quran. Prophet
Muhammad (S.A.W) was himself the focal point of these two concepts. Therefore, with the
death of the Prophet, the Prophecy came to an end. Thus there was created a gap between
the Shariah and the Ummah. The new link was created by the Ijma of the community in the
form of the institution of the Khilafah which constitutes the third element of Islamic political
theory. The fourth element would be the concept of Dar al-Islam and the Mumin living therein.
The question arises that Islam favours the theocracy or democracy administrative setup.
Mulana Maududi says, the Islamic theocracy does not mean a rule by any priestly class but it
means common Muslims wielding reigns of power. But the Muslims have to wield this power in
keeping with the Book of Allah (S.W.T) and Sunnah, of His Prophet. Maududi prefers to call the
Islamic form of government as “theo-democracy”. In this form of government Muslims have
been allowed a limited popular sovereignty under the paramountcy of Allah (S.W.T).
For knowing the Islamic concept of administration, the Islamic state in Medina is the great
example to turn to if one is to resolve the various problems of the modern Islamic world.
According to this view the Islamic state in Medina was governed pursuant to the divine
precepts of Muhammad (S.A.W). Take, as an example, to the following quotation from Imam
Khomeini.
“The most noble Messenger (Peace and Blessings be Upon Him) headed the executive and
administrative institutions of Muslims society. In addition to conveying revelation and
expounding and interpreting the articles of faith and the ordinances and institutions of Islam, he
undertook the implementation of law and the establishment of the ordinance of Islam, thereby
bringing into being the Islamic state. He did not content himself with the promulgation of law,
rather he implemented it at the same time, cutting off hands and administering lashing and
stoning. After the most noble Messenger, his successor had the same duty and function”.
Overall to know the Islamic concept of administration a letter of Hazrat Umar the second caliph
of Islam, wrote to the governor of Kufa, Abu Musa Ashari on the principles of justice. He wrote:
administration of justice is a necessary duty. Teat people equally be it in private audience of
public sitting in matters of justice so that the weak should not despair of your justice and the
strong should not hope for favour. It is for the plaintiff to produce proof and it is for the
defendant to deny on oath. Compromise is permissible provided it does not violate what has
been permitted or prohibited (by Shariah). If you have passed any judgment yesterday there
would be nothing wrong in reversing it today on second thought in the interest of justice. If it is
not there in the Quran or Hadith contemplate over it deeply taking into account examples.
Similar cases and drawing analogies. Fix a time limit for the plaintiff to produce proof justice be
done to him if the produces proof or else, his case be demised.
AIOU Solved Assignment Code 8605 Autumn & Spring 2024
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Q.3 Discuss in detail different principles of School management. Answer:
i. Objectives of Educational/School Management Aims and objectives of school management are same which are determined by the Government of Pakistan in education policies. As per National Education Policy 1979 following are the aims of education: 1. To foster in the hearts and minds of the people of Pakistan in general and the students in particular, a deep and abiding loyally to Islam and Pakistan and living consciousness of their spiritual and ideological identity thereby cause strengthening of unity of the outlook of the people of Pakistan on the basis of justice and fair play. 2. To create awareness in every student that he, as a member of Pakistan nation is also a part of the Universal Muslim Ummah and that it is expected of him to make a fair contribution towards the welfare of fellow Muslims inhabiting the globe on the one hand and to help the spreading the message of Islam throughout the world on the other. 3. To produce citizens who are full conversant with the Pakistani movement, its ideological foundations, history and culture so that they may feel proud of their heritage and can display firm faith in the future of the country as an Islamic state. 4. To develop and inculcate in accordance with the Quran and Sunnah, the character, conduct and motivation expected of a true Muslim. 5. To provide and ensure equal educational opportunities to all citizen of Pakistan and provide minorities with adequate facilities for their cultural and xlv
religious development enabling them to effectively participate in overall national effort. 6. To impart quality education and to develop fully according to their capacity, each individuals potentialities, through training and retraining and to develop the creative and innovative faculties of the people with a view to building their capability to effectively manage social, natural and productive forces, consistent with the value system of Islam. 7. To provide a minimum acceptable level of functional literacy and fundamental education to all citizens of the country particularly the young, irrespective of faith, caste and creed in order to enable them to participate productively in the total effort.
8. To create interest and love for learning and discipline among the youth and to ensure that every student is imbued with the realization that education continuous and a lifelong process. 9. To promote and strengthen scientific, vocational and psychological education, training and research in the country and to use this knowledge for socio-economic growth and development thereby ensuring a self-reliant and secure future for the nation. ii. Aspects of Education/School Management and Related Issues Followings are the major educational/school management aspects: 1. Society needs and aspirations 2. The policy and objectives 3. The resources 4. The outcomes The issues in educational management usually concern with five major educational management aspects namely: the policy and objectives, the resources, the management as a system. We can show the critical areas that give birth to issues. xlvi
Thus we can categorize the major sources of educational issues as under: 1. Resource Issues: Human (students, staff). Material (funds, facilities, equipment etc.) and Constraints (policy, regulation, ideology, etc.) 2. Process Issues: Administrative and managerial issues (including power, curricular authority, teaching strategies, nature of programmes and overall production process in education). 3. Output Issues: the results of the educational process: number of successful students, retention rate, dropouts, or how for the educational system is meeting the objectives for setting it up. 4. Societal Issues: The social, political, cultural, economic, technological issues which effect the management of education. For example in Pakistan one can guess the following issues: 1. Input Issues: (i) the issue of Islamization of education enterprise (its management and procedure); (ii) The issue of the inadequacy/under liability of the resources (e.g. funds, staff, facilities) for managing educational institutions or projects. 2. Process Issues: (i) The issue of curricular (their adequacy standards, development); (ii) The administrative setup in the institutions/departments to what extent do they promote or hamper effectiveness or efficiency in the education process? (iii) The methodologies adopted in the teaching (how far so they reflect acceptable qualities? (iv) Educational/examination procedures how adequate or standardize? 3. Output Issues: (i) How do we ensure that the output of the system are suitable enough or we over-procedures/under-producing certain categories of output? 4. Social Issues: (i) the political context: the matter arising from the political system that tends to affect education system; (ii) Social Issues: The issue of equal opportunity, equal distribution of or access to educational facilities; (iii) the culture: how far are they being protected, promoted, and destroyed by the education. The three basic procedures for the treatment of the issues in educational management are: a) Thoughtful and reflective analysis of the issues: their origin, magnitude, possible consequences and short-term/long-term implications; and the possible management strategies. xlvii
b) Through research and investigation. Such research would reveal the ramification and implication of issues and could suggest possible steps for harnessing and accommodating the issues. c) Through discussion/workshops on the issues t highlight the implications (short/long-term implication) on management practice. iii. Principles of School Management
A principle is a generation that is widely accepted as true system. A goal of serious thinkers in any discipline is to develop principles about the subject with which they are concerned. Herut Fayol one of the main contributors to the evaluation of management through strongly advocated the development of management principles. Why are Principles Useful? Principles are useful to manager for several reasons. First, they help manager to make more accurate decision. To the extent that managers can apply principles in any situation and eliminate guesswork, sounder decision should result. Second, by principles save time. If one learners principles of management in school, for example less experience is required to become an effective manager. Discussions can be made more rapidly and accurately when principles provide guidelines for action. Third, principles enable the people to may pass no information from one generation to the next. Great waste occurs when a generation must learn through experience alone what a previous generation had already learned through its experience. To the extent that principle can be developed and applied. Thus waste can be reduced. The issue for debate in this chapter discusses the importance of experience versus that of formal education in moving ahead in management. Management theories and practitioners are not in complete agreement as to whether management principles have been develop or, indeed, can be developed. This lack of agreement is both understandable and intellectually healthy as it helps to stimulate debate and research. Why are there exceptions to management principles? The point of view taken in this text is that some management principles have been discovered and more will be developed as research and contemplation about management continues. However, management principles cannot be formulated xlviii
with the same precision as physical science principles. There are exceptions to a principle which the behaviour of people rather than principles involving physics or chemistry. Planning Principles: Principle of the Primary Objectives: Planning should begin with a clear-cut statement of the primary goal. Without knowledge of an organization’s basic, senior manager will not make full use of the organization’s human material and financial resources. Principles of Adequate Alternative: The greater the number and variety of alternatives presented to solve a problem, the greater the likelihood that the manager will make an acceptable decision. Often the manager do not think deeply enough about problem to discover all logical alternatives to its solution. There may be, for example, many alternatives for decreasing costs or increasing revenue. Principles of Contingencies: “A plan should have built into it prescribed actions to cover contingencies.” In other words, management should be prepared for unexpected yet possible events. Organizing Principles: Unity-of-Command Principle: When an individual reports to a single supervisor, personal accountability for performance should be clear. In practice, however, people often report several supervisions. This leads to confusion, divided attention and other problems. Adequacy-of-Authority Principle: “Sufficient authority to accomplish a task should be given to the person who is accountable for the result.” People often are given a goal but are not given enough power or authority to achieve it. A supervisor, for example, may be told to increase production significantly but may not be authorized to have employees work overtime. Scalar (Chain-of-Command) Principle: “When the line of authority from the most senior executive flows clearly to each succeeding lower-level position, fixation of responsibility and accountability is easily understood”. Often, however, this principle is violated and some people in an organization are confused about their reporting relationships. xlix
Staffing Principles: Principles of Developing a Successor: “Each manager should train subordinate to be read to take over his or her job temporarily or permanently. While often violated, this principle is basic to effective management. Often here is no back-up person able to fill manager’s position after he or she resign, is promoted, becomes ill or terminated. Principle of Manager Evaluation: “managers are best evaluated in terms of the result they achieve”. This principle is easiest way to apply when results are quantifiable. Principle of Management Development: Since perfection in management is unattainable,
there is always room from a manager to improve.” Thereof an organizational eliminates that
encourages additional training and development should be created.
Autumn & Spring 2024 AIOU Solved Assignment 1 & 2 Code 8605
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Q.4 Differentiate between administration and supervision. Discuss characteristics of an effective supervisor. Answer:
The dictionary of education defines supervision as “all efforts of designed schools towards providing leadership to teachers and other educational workers in the improvement of instruction ; involves the stimulation of professional growth and development of teachers, the selection and revision of educational objectives, materials on instruction and methods of teaching and the evaluation of instruction.” Here the word “supervision” means to guide and stimulate the activities of teachers with a view to improve them, i.e., teaching as well as instruction and promoting professional growth. Now-a-days the concept of supervision has been changed. It is not concerned merely with improvement of teachers as it was conceived in the previous days, when the supervisory activities were directive and prescriptive. But now according to some experts, supervision requires a super plus vision a superior perspective attended by special preparation and position. To them the primary function of supervisors of all types is leadership, encouragement and recognition of leadership in any other person either in the professional staff or among the community participants.` Therefore they designate the supervisor as a leader who has possession of the following two qualities: 1. A clear perspective of the school’s goals and awareness of its resources and qualities and another is, 2. The ability to help others, contribute to this vision and to perceive and to act in accordance with it. So it is now clear that the modern concept of supervision centres round the basic concept of instructional improvement through leadership and co-operation of all the agencies concerned. Keeping this in view Neagly and Evans have strongly viewed that, “Modem supervision in school is positive democratic action aimed at the improvement of classroom instruction through the continued growth of all concerned – the educed, the teacher, the supervisor, the administrator and the parents of others interested lay person.” Supporting this Barr and Burton have rightly stated that, “No doubt the aim of supervision is the improvement of teaching but this can be facilitated through the development of the teacher, the growth of the pupil and the improvement of the teaching-learning process as a whole. It has been clearly visualized that the supervision seeks to be democratic in nature out and out which demands constant efforts on the part of inspecting officers. They have to stimulate co- ordinate, guide for continued growth of the teacher in a school, both individually and collectively in better understanding and more effective performances of all teaching activities. As a result of which teachers may be better able to stimulate and guide the continued growth of
every pupil towards the most intelligent participation in modern democratic society. This new concept is based on the belief that inspection and supervision are a co-operative enterprise in which both the teacher and inspecting officers have to participate actively. From this discussion the term inspection has got priority in supervision which was not stressed on in earlier days because the degree of success of any supervisory activity or programme depends upon the degree of inspection done by the inspecting officials. Because they are the real supervisors of the educational programme. As both supervision and inspection are meant for the same purpose and inspection covers almost all the areas of supervision there is no necessity of bringing difference between supervision and inspection. Scope of Supervision: The scope of supervision is very wide which can be proved from the following aspects of education as the scope of supervision in education: 1. The Instructional Work: The first and foremost task of the supervisor is how to improve the instruction. For this, he supervises: a. Method of teaching employed for different subjects. b. Audio-visual aids used. c. The time table. d. The distribution of work among teachers. e. The written work of students and its correction. f. Teachers lesson diaries and scheme of work. 2. Co-Curricular Activities: The supervisor supervises the organisation of various co- curricular activities keeping in view their need and importance. These co-curricular activities are: a. Games and sports b. Dramatics c. School magazines d. Library services e. Educational tours f. Field trips and g. Picnics 3. Records and Registers: The supervisor has to supervise all the records and registers of an educational institution or school by examining the following type of records: a. Admission Register b. Attendance Register c. The cash book d. The log book e. The Stock Register and f. The Receipt Book 4. The School Environment: The school environment has a profound role bringing over an improvement of educational process For this the supervisor has to supervise the following aspects of the school environment: a. School Discipline b. Relationship between the head of the institution and his staff, between staff and students c. Emotional climate of the school d. General behaviour of students e. Cleanliness of the surroundings
f. Goodwill of the self-government formed by students g. Plantation of trees h. Morale of the classroom i. Relationship among teachers j. Hygienic conditions of the toilet, canteen and water supply k. Relationship of the head of the institution or school with the community members l. Beautification of the campus 5. Management: Supervision of management is also another aspect of the scope of supervision in education without which the overall improvement of teaching-learning process will never be successful. The supervision of the management of the educational institution includes the following aspects with it: a. Co-operation of teachers and community members. b. The ability of the headmaster to run the school or institution. c. Co-operation, co-ordination and responsibility between teachers and headmaster in organizing any programme. d. Duties and responsibilities rendered by the teachers as the members of different sub- committees for different programmes. e. Problems with the managing committee. f. Achievements and failures of the school. 6. Guidance to Teachers: The supervisor has not only to supervise but also guide the headmaster and teachers in their efforts for ensuring qualitative improvement of education. For this supervision includes the following things in its jurisdiction: a. Innovations in teaching b. Remedial instruction c. Community mobilization and support d. Conducting seminars, conferences, meetings and workshops to discuss about problems and their solution. 7. Developmental Activities: The supervisor supervises the developmental activities of the school in the following heads: a. Justification of developmental activities, proposals for extension of the school building. b. Allotment receipt and the progress made. Difficulties faced and the steps taken by the headmaster to wipe out the difficulties, and c. Construction of the new building and its progress.
References
1. Pure web-based information is not repeated here; all hyperlinks are valid as of 28 June
2014.
2. Andrews, M. 2013. The Limits of Institutional Reform in Development: Changing Rules
for Realistic Solutions. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
3. Ansary, T. 2009. Destiny Disrupted: A History of the Islamic World through Islamic Eyes.
New York: Public Affairs. 4. Aras, B. 2012. “Turkey and the Balkans: New Policy in a Changing Regional Envi-
ronment.” German Marshall Fund on Turkey Analysis, 31 October.
5. Barkey, K. 2008. Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective.
Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
6. Bauer, T. 2011. Die Kultur der Ambiguität: Eine andere Geschichte des Islam. -Berlin:
Verlag der Weltreligionen/Insel.
7. Bell, M. 2014. “Liberal Attitudes and Middle East Realities.” Transatlantic Academy
Paper Series, June.
AIOU Solved Assignment 1 & 2 Autumn & Spring 2024 Code 8605
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Q.5 Explain different steps involved in the process of project planning. Answer:
Process of Project Planning One of the basic objectives of development planning is to make prudent use of available scarce resources to raise the standard of living of the common man. And to obtain this objective it is essential that projects are prepared meticulously. This avoids the wastage of resources and helps scheduled implementation of projects. Thus, extreme care has to be taken at the stage of project formulation so that the viability of a project from different angles (financial, economic, social, technical commercial, managerial etc.) may be determined. The project formulator should, therefore, ensure that the project prepared by him; i) is the best alternative to tackle a certain problem in the presence of a number of constraints; ii) involves least use of resources; iii) is sound from financial, economic, technical, commercial and managerial view points; and iv) has certain flexibility to adjust to any change which may take place during its implementation phase. In the paragraphs to follow, different essential features of a project (which should be taken care of while preparing a project) have been thoroughly discussed. i) Introduction: In the first instance, a project may contain a brief introductory note/write-up indicating its scope, importance and the weightage of the Education sector in the development plan being followed currently. There might be some identical projects having been implemented previously. Problems faced in such projects should be highlighted and possible solutions may be suggested. ii) Background: A brief reference to plans and policies of the government in respect of the Education sector may be made. The idea here is to see as to how far the project is going to be an effective instrument to achieve the sectoral objectives and targets. There may be a situation when a pilot project is initiated before implementation of the actual project. Such details need to be given. lxxxix
iii) The Project Area: The area where project is to operate may be explored fully so as to establish its suitability. For this purpose, different surveys may be undertaken to collect technical and other data whenever necessary. Following aspects of the project area may also be looked into:- a) Physical Resources: This is very important from the land utilization point of view. A study may be required to examine the topography of the area, capability of the soil (for instance for agricultural production/irrigation projects), water availability etc. b) Population and employment: The study of population in the project area is to identify the beneficiaries of the project. Such a study may involve analysis of the size and age structure of the population, density, its urban-rural distribution, migration trends etc. c) Physical Infrastructure: Depending upon the nature of the project, the prevalent position with regard to the means of transport and communication will have a direct bearing on the operation of the project. Hence, the need for proper study of the physical infrastructure at the stage of project formulation is required. d) Institutions: Presence of the supporting institutions will facilitate smooth functioning of the
project. The examination of such institutions is therefore, a very crucial area of probe before the project is proposed to be located at a particular place. iv) Objective and Phasing of the Project: Objectives of the project may be spelt out in specific terms. Similarly, the physical work involved may be clearly indicated with reference to its phasing and time period. This will help identify various project activities and their completion in a more logical sequence. v) Choice of Location, Production Process and Size: At the stage or project formulation, factors such as location, production process, size etc. need to be studied in depth in accordance with the nature of the project. Howsoever sound a project may be, if it is not properly located, it will fail to give full result. Therefore, choice of a proper location for the project is of primary importance. The choice of production process will mostly be governed by technical considerations. However, natural conditions and supply of factors of production will also make a lot of difference. Determination of the size of the project will be governed mainly by the volume of future demand for the xc
produce of the project, the geographical extent of the market which in turn will depend on the taste and habits of the consumers. vi) Project’s Major Works and other Components: In order to give physical shape to a project, major works and essential components have to be indicated with maximum accuracy. These works and activities may be classified as under:- a) Major Works: Based on preliminary surveys and investigations (normally in case of big projects) all major works should be described in full. b) Ancillary Works and Buildings: For some of the projects, staff-houses and drinking water supply tanks may have to be constructed, simultaneously. These works when connected with some major projects are known as ancillary works. c) Equipment: Some equipment may also be required during the construction and operation of the project such as machinery, vehicles and other maintenance equipment which should be identified in advance for smooth running of the project. vii) Phasing of Works and Activities: A project may be spread over any length of time. For this reason, project-works are split up into different phases. Generally, projects are phased out on fiscal year basis. Nevertheless, in case of big projects which involve certain loans, proper scheduling and phasing of various activities included in the project assumes greater significance for the purpose of repayment of loans. In order to facilitate smooth and timely implementation of projects, it is necessary to visualize problems which are likely to crop up during the execution phase. This would bring in more realism in the project at the very stage of its formulation. viii) Project Costs: Different project costs are as under:- a) Capital Costs: These cover all the expenditures on physical assets. They include the costs of (1) major works (2) ancillary works and buildings (3) equipment and items of costs associated with support services and (4) contingencies. b) Recurrent Costs: The expenditures on goods and services needed to operate and maintain a project constitute the recurrent costs. The items included in such costs are salaries and wages of project employees, costs of essential inputs needed for operating the main works of the project (fuel, electricity etc.) expenses on repair and maintenance of capital items. xci
c) Local and Foreign Currency Costs: In some cases a part of the capital and recurrent costs of the project is in the form of foreign currency, a very scare factor in a country like ours. For financing arrangements as well as for sound economic analysis, it is essential to show separately the local and foreign currency components of capital and recurrent costs. d) Phasing of Costs: The capital and recurrent costs of the project may be phased on an annual basis. Such phasing will depend entirely on the scheduling of major construction works
and on the annual rate of progress of project operation until output reaches its maximum potential. The phasing of costs in an essential aspect of project preparation as it indicates the annual financial requirement of a project to be met during its entire life. viii) Financing of the Project: There could be various sources to finance a project. In brief these sources are:- a) Government Sources i) Grant ii) Loan iii) Investment iv) Direct Government Expenditure b) Sponsoring Agency’s Own Fund c) Private Investment d) Local Body Services e) Non-Government Borrowing ix) Organization and Management: For this purpose, through analysis of requirement (both at
the implementation and the subsequent stages) in terms of skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled
manpower is essential. Along with this, the position with regard to the availability of the
requisite manpower also needs to be examined. Such an analysis will reveal as to what steps
are needed to meet the project requirements in terms of different types of manpower.
