
AIOU Solved Assignments 2 Code 8610 Autumn & Spring 2023
AIOU Solved Assignments Code 8610 Autumn & Spring 2023
AIOU Solved Assignments 1 & 2 Code 8610 Autumn & Spring 2023. Solved Assignments code 8610 Human Development and Learning 2023. Allama iqbal open university old papers.
Assignment No. 2
Autumn & Spring 2023
Human Development and Learning (8610)
Q.1.Howcanteachersimproveemotionaldevelopmentatpreschoolandkindergarten level?
EMOTIONALCHARACTERISTICSOFLEARNERSATPRESCHOOLLEVEL
Emotionsofpreschoolchildrenarelargelyonsurface.Childrenatthislevelexhibit followingcharacteristics:
Childrenlaughwhenadultslaughoronanoddevent.Itshowsexpansionofhumor
Lessnegativism
Commencementofphobiasandfearsthatmayprolongtoagefive
Atfouryearsintentionallyingmaybegin
ActivitiesforSocialandEmotionalDevelopmentatPreschoollevel
Followingsectionpresentssomeclassroomactivitiesateachercanusetodevelop socioemotionalskills.Youcangettheideaanddesignyourowninnovativeactivities accordingtotheleveloflearnersandaccessiblesources.
ICanHelp
Itwillbedifficultforchildrenofpreschoolagetofullygraspemotionalconcepts, especiallycomplexemotions.Thereforeteachershouldfocusonbasicemotionssuch ashappy,sad,angry,andhurt.
Materials:
•Largepiecesofchartpaper/posterboard
•Markers
Whattodo:
1.Drawahappyfaceontopofthechartpaperandaskthechildwhatheseesandwhat itmeans.
2.Askhimtotellthingsthatmakehimhappy.
3.Askwhathecandotofeelhappy.
4.Drawanunhappyfaceandrepeattheprocess.Alsoaskthechildwhathecandoifhe seesafriendwhoisunhappy.
5.Drawanangryfaceswellassomeonewhoisupset.
Variation:
Talkingaboutemotionswithachildcanbemadeeasierbyusingbooks.Findoutsome booksinUrdulanguageorinmothertongue,whicharewrittenanddesignedforchildren ofthisage.
EMOTIONALCHARACTERISTICSOFLEARNERSATKINDERGARTENLEVEL
Atagefivechildrenbegintocontrolemotionsandtrytoexpresstheminsocially acceptableways.
Frequentquarrelsamongchildrenbutthesequarrelsareofshortduration.
Atsixthereischangeinemotionsandchildseemstobeinemotionalconfusion.New kindofworriesarisebyjoiningschool.
Angeroutburst(explosion;expressionofanger)mayappear
Developmentofconscience(senseofrightandwrong)atfivestarts
Atsixacceptanceofrulesdevelopsandoftenthereisrigidinsistenceonobeying
therulesinallconditions.
i.Activitiestodevelopemotionalskillsatkindergarten
MakingaTrain
Groupprojectshelpyoungchildrenbyprovidingthemwiththeopportunitytoshareand worktogethertoachievesomegoal.
Materials:
•Cardboardboxes
•Paint
•Crayons
•Markers
ii.Whattodo:
1.Arrangecardboardboxesforthechildrentomakeatraintogether.
2.Askchildrentodecoratetheboxesandthenputthemtogetherlikeatrain(orany otherobjectthatmightbeinterestingtothem).
3.Havelimitedsuppliesavailabletosupportchildreninsharingthematerialsasthey makethetraintogether.
4.Talkaboutsharingwhilethechildrenarebuildinganddecoratingthetrain.Givepraise commentsoracknowledgementwhenchildrenshare.
Askthemhowtheyfeelwhentheyhavetowaittousethethingthattheywant.
Askthemtolistthingstheycandowhiletheywaittheirturnandsharethematerials
(workonanotherpartofthebox,usecrayonswhiletheywaitformarkers,make
streamersforthetrain).
iii.PasstheHat
Thisactivityprovideschildrenwiththechancetopracticedifferentfeelingsinasafe
environment.
Materials:
•Picturesrepresentingvariousfeelingfaces
•Hat,basket,orlargeenvelope
iv.Whattodo?
1.Cutoutpictureswhichrepresentvariousfeelingfacesandplacetheminahat,
basketorlargeenvelope.
2.Passthehatamongtheplaymatesandplaymusic.
3.Stopthemusic.Thechildholdingthehatpicksapictureofanemotion.
4.Askthechildtoidentifyit,showfacialexpressions.Thechildcanalsodescribea timewhenhefeltthatway.
5.Continuepassingthehatuntilallchildrengetachancetoparticipate.
v.Variation:
•Havethechildrenlookthroughmagazinesandnewspaperstofindvariousfeeling faces.Theycancutthemoutandmakeafeeling-facecollection.Adultscanhelpthe childrenlabelthedifferentfeelingfaces.
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Q.2.DiscussKohlberg’stheoryofmoraldevelopment.
LawrenceKohlberg’sTheory(1927-1987)
LawrenceKohlbergstartedasadevelopmentalpsychologistandthenmovedontothefieldof moraleducation.Throughhisstudies,Kohlbergdisplayedthatpeopledevelopedintheirmoral reasoningthroughaseriesofstages.Hebelievedthatthereweresixidentifiablestagesof moralreasoning.Thesestagescanbeclusteredintothreelevelsofcomplexity.Theyare:
LevelI-Pre-ConventionalReasoning
Atthislevel,thechildcannotunderstandtheconceptofmoralvalues.Moralreasoningis controlledbyexternalrewardsandpunishments.
Stage1:PunishmentandObedience
Moralthinkingisbasedonpunishment.Childrenobeybecauseadultstellthemto obey.Whateverisrewardedisgood;whateverispunishedisbad.
Stage2:IndividualismandPurpose
Moralthinkingisbasedonrewardsandself-interest.Childrenobeywhentheywanttoobeyand whenitisintheirbestintereststoobey.Whatisrightiswhatfeelsgoodandwhatisrewarding.
I’lldosomethinggoodforyouifyoudosomethinggoodforme.
Level2-ConventionalReasoning
Atthislevel,internalizationistransitional.Thechildabidesbycertainstandards(internal). However,thesearethestandardsofothers(external)suchasparentsorthelawsofsociety.
Stage3:InterpersonalNorms
Childrengiveimportancetotrust,caringandfaithfulnesstoothersasthebasisofmoral judgment.Atthisstage,childrenoftenadopttheirparents’moralstandards.Theymakeefforts tobeconsideredbyparentsasa”goodboy”ora“goodgirl.Thisimpressionisrewardingfor children.
Stage4:SocialSystemMorality
Moraljudgmentsarebasedonunderstandingthesocialorder,law,justiceandduty.For example,achildmightsaythatitisalwayswrongtostealbecauselawsthathavebeen developedareforthebenefitofsociety.
Goodisdefinedbylawsofsociety,bydoingone’sduty.Alawshouldbeobeyedevenifitisnot fair.
Level-Post-ConventionalReasoning
Atthislevelmoralityiscompletelyinternalized(adopted)bytheindividualandisnotbasedon others’standards.Theadolescentidentifiesalternativemoralways,searchesforthechoices andthendecidesonpersonalmoralcodes.
Stage5:CommunityRightsversusIndividualRights
Theadolescentunderstandsthatvaluesandlawsarenotabsolutebutrelative.Healsoknows thatstandardsmaydifferfromonepersontoanother.Thepersonrecognizesthatlawsare importantforsocietybutknowsthatlawscanbechanged.Hebelievesthatsomevalues,such asliberty,aremoreimportantthanthelaw.Valuesandlawsarerelativeandstandardsmayvary fromonepersontoanother.
Goodisunderstoodintermsofabstract(mental)principlesthatthesocietyhassettleddown. Anunfairlawoughttobechanged.
Stage6:UniversalEthicalPrinciples
Atthisstageindividualhasdevelopedamoralstandardbasedonuniversalhumanrights.When facedwithaconflictbetweenlawandconscience,thepersonwillfollowconscience,even thoughthedecisionmightinvolvepersonalrisks.Goodisunderstoodintermsofabstract principles.Theemphasisisonhumanrightswithoutcaringfortheapprovalofsociety.
Kohlberg’stheoryshowsusthatmoralreasoningisacomplexprocessandthechildneeds guidancethroughouthisdevelopmentalstages.
Inthepre-schoolage,youwillbedealingwithchildrenofthefirsttwostagesandinthelongrun thethirdstage,butitisimportantforyoutounderstandthewholeprocessofmoral developmentaccordingtotheperspectiveofLawrenceKohlberg.
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Q.3.Explaincomponentsoflanguage.
COMPONENTSOFLANGUAGE
1Phoneme
Aphonemeisabasicunitofphonology.Itisthesmallestunitofsoundthatmaycausea changeofmeaningwithinalanguage.Itdoesn’thavemeaningbyitself.Phonemesmatchupto thesoundsofthealphabet,althoughthereisnotalwaysaone-to-oneconnectionbetweena letterandaphoneme.
Forexample,theword“hat”hasthreephonemes:
1- /h/
2- /a/
3- /t/
However,theword”shape,”hasfivelettersbutonlythreephonemes:
1- /sh/
2- /long-a/
3- /p/
Englishlanguagehasaround45differentphonemes,whichareassociatedtolettersor combinationsofletters.Aphonemecanhaveaspecificpronunciationinonewordanda differentpronunciationinanotherword.
2Phonology
Phonologyisthebranchoflanguage,whichisconcerned,withtheorderlyorganizationof soundsinlanguage.Generallyithasfocusonthestudyofsystemofphonemesinlanguage.It coverslinguisticanalysiseitheratthelevelofwordoratthelevelsoflanguagewheresoundis assumedtobestructureforconveyinglinguisticmeaning.Phonologyincludesthestudyof equivalentorganizationalsystemsofsignsinlanguage.Thestudyofverbalcommunication structurewithinthelanguageisknownasthephonology.Thesmallestunitofsoundto formulatethelanguageiscalledthephoneme.
Forexample,
Word“CAT”containsthreephonemes.
Word“HAT”containsthreephonemes.
Word“BAT”containsthreephonemes.
Thewordphonologyalsoreferstothephonologicalsystem(systemofsounds)ofthelanguage. Thisisthefundamentalsystemswhichalanguageiscomprisedof.Phonologyisveryoften distinguishedfromphonetics.Phoneticsconcernswiththephysicalproduction,audio communicationandunderstandingofthesounds.Phonologydescribesthewaysounds functionwithinalanguagetoencodethemeaning.Phoneticsbelongstodescriptivelinguistics andphonologytotheoreticallinguistics.
3Morphology
ThetermmorphologyisGreekandisamakeupof
MorphMeansshape,form.
-ologyMeansthestudyofsomething.
Thetermisalsousedin
1.Biologyasthescientificstudyofstructureofanimalsandplants
2.Geologyasthestudyofformationandevolutionofrocksandlandforms.
Morphemesincludebasewords,like.
“Cat”,“Cow,“Dog”,“Goat”
Andaffixeslike
Un-Un-planned,Un-seen,Un-pleasant
Re-Re-play,Re-tell,Re-call
Knowledgeofthemorphologyisrelatedtovocabularydevelopmentandreflectsthesmallest buildingblocksforcomprehension.Morphemes,thebasicunitofmorphology,arethesmallest meaningfulunitoflanguage.So,amorphemeisaseriesofphonemesthathasaspecial meaning.Somemorphemesareindividualwords(suchas”eat”or”water”).Theseareknownas freemorphemesbecausetheycanexistontheirown.Othermorphemesareprefixes,suffixes, orotherlinguisticpiecesthataren’tfullwordsontheirownbutdoaffectmeaningsuchasthe”- s”attheendof“cats”orthe”re-“atthebeginningof“re-play”.
4Syntax
Syntaxisrelatedtothestructureofsentencesanditdetermineswhichwordstogowhere. Studyingofsyntaxallowsustounderstandtherulesabouthowlanguageworks.Itisbelieved thattherearecertainrulesthatapplytoalllanguages.Syntaxisasetofrulesforconstructing
fullsentencesoutofwordsandphrases.Everylanguagehasadifferentsetofsyntacticrules.In English,thesmallestformofasentenceisanounandaverbphrase.Adjectivesandadverbs canbeaddedtothesentencetoprovidefurthermeaning.Wordordermattersinlanguage.For example,theEnglishsentencestheAhmadatetheappleandtheappleatetheAhmaddonot meanthesamemeaning,eventhoughtheycontaintheexactsamewords.
5Semantics
Semanticsisthestudyofmeaning.Whatismeaning?Howismeaningcreatedinlanguage? Howdopeopleunderstandlanguageandwhydoweunderstanditlikewedo?Oneofthemain reasonsweuselanguageistopassmeaningfromonepersontoanother,andsemanticsdeals withit.Grammaticalstructureofthelanguagehelpsusunderstandthelanguage.Semantics referstothewaysinwhichalanguageconveysmeaning.Semanticsmovesbeyondtheliteral meaningofwordsinlanguageandisculturedependent.
6.Pragmatics
Itisthestudyofhumanactions,thoughtsandlinguisticsigns,(wordsandsentences)inreal situations.Pragmaticsreferstothewaysthemembersofacommunityusethelanguage.The waytheyspeaktotheirparentsisnotthesamewaywespeakwithourfellowchildren.The languageusedinaformalconversationmayhavelessresemblancetowhatwecouldhearata lunchwithourfellowchildren.Theconversationalstylethatweuseinourdaytoday conversationismuchmoredifferentfromthatofthelanguageweusewhenwearereadinga storybookforakid.Pragmaticsdealswithknowingthedifferencebetweenthetwostylesand whentousewhichstyle.
Dearstudent:Asdiscussedabove,wecansummarizecomponentsoflanguageas
Phonemeisthebasicunitoflanguageandisconcernedwiththesoundsofalphabets.
Phonologydealswiththesoundsinalanguage.Morphologyisrelatedtothevocabulary building.
Syntaxdealswiththestructureofsentenceandthesequenceofwordsinit.
Semanticsstudiesmeaningsinalanguage.
Pragmaticsstudieshumanactionsandtheirexplanationbysignsinlanguage.
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Q.4.Describelawsoflearning.Alsodiscusstheeducationalimplicationsoftheselaws.
LawsofLearning
Learningisafundamentalingredientintheeducationofachild.Therefore,ateachermust understandfully,howlearningtakesplaceinthebestpossiblemanner,inthisconnection,itis
imperativethattheteachershouldknowwhatarecalled‘LawsofLearning’asgivenby Thorndikeandothers.Theymustbeacceptedandfundamentallawsoflearningare:
(i)LawofReadiness
(ii)LawofExercise
(iii)LawofEffect
Inadditiontothese,certainotherlawsoflearningwillalsobementionedbriefly.
(i)LawofReadiness:Thislawemphasizestheimportanceofreadinesstolearn.“Whena personfeelsreadytolearnortoact,helearnsoracts,moreeffectivelyandwithgreater satisfactionthanwhennotready”.Thisimpliesthatthelearnermustbementallypreparedto learn.Thisemphasizestheimportanceofmotivationinlearning.Thelearnermustbebroughtin theproperframeofmind,andhiscuriositymustbeincreasedforbringingabouteffective learning.
EducationalImplications
1.Arousechild’sreadinesstolearn,Herbart,thegiverofHerbartianSteps,emphasizedthatthe appreciativemassesmustbebroughttotheforefrontbeforeanylearningtakesplace.
2.Thelawcallsupontheteachertomotivatethechildbeforeheundertakesanyteachingwork.
3.Thecurricularactivitiesshouldbeaccordingtothechild’smentallevelofmaturity.Thiswill ensurereadinessaswellasarousecuriosityfornewthingstobelearnt.
(ii)LawofExercise:Broadlyspeaking,thislawimpliesthatlearningtakesplacebyexercising,i.e. bydoingorbyactivelyparticipatingintheperformance.Welearnwhatwedo,andwedonot learnwhatwedonotdo.Thatiswhythislawisalsocalled‘LawofUse’and‘LawofDisuse.
(i)LawofUse,‘Whenamodifiableconnectionismadebetweenasituationandaresponse,that connectionsstrengthisdecreased,thisemphasizestheneedandimportanceofpractice.In otherwords‘Practicemakesperfect’.
(ii)LawofDisuse.‘Whenamodifiableconnectionisnotmadebetweenasituationanda responseoveralengthoftime,thatconnection’sstrengthisdecreased,thislawimpliesthe negativevalueoflackofpractice.
Theeducationalimplicationsofthelawsofexercisearegreat.Thisemphasizesthevalueof repetition,drillandpracticeformemorizingandmasteringofsomething.Thisalsoemphasizes thatmuchtimeshouldnotelapsebetweenonepracticeandthesubsequentone,becauselong disusemaycauseforgetfulness.
EducationalImplications
1.Iflearnableactsarerepeated,theybecomehabit.
2.Badhabitscanbeeradicated.Itisbelievedthatifthechildrenaremadetopractice consciouslytheirbadhabits,theyautomaticallytendtoleavethem.3.Forgettingcanbedelayed ordiluted.4.Skillsliketyping,shorthand,athleticsandsooncanbedevelopedtothemaximum.
5.Theteachermustensurethattheactofrepetitioniscarriedoutwithapleasanteffect.Anact ofrepetition,whichisaccompaniedbyasatisfyingstate,strengthensaconnection.
(iii)LawofEffect:Thislawimpliesthatifoureffortsareaccompaniedbyafeelingof achievementorsatisfaction,wearefurtherinspiredtolearn,andtherefore,effectivelearning takesplace,ifoureffortsarenotaccompaniedbyafeelingofsatisfaction,notmuchofreal learningwilltakeplace.Inotherwordswemaysaythataresponse,whichgivesachievementof thegoalandthusprovidessatisfaction,willbestampedin,whilethose,whichareaccompanied bydissatisfaction,willbestampedout.
Thorndikedefinesitasfollows:
“Whenamodifiedconnectionbetweenasituationandresponseismade,andisaccompaniedor followedbyasatisfyingstateofaffairs,thatconnection’sstrengthisincreased,butwhenmade andaccompaniedbyanannoying‘stateofaffairs,itsstrengthisdecreased”.
Thus,thelearners,feelingoremotionalstateaffectslearning.Inotherwordssuccessand failureconditionthelearningtoagreatextent.
EducationImplications
1.Childrengettoformgoodhabitandattitudebyassociatingwithreward,satisfactionand praise.
2.Undesirableattitudesoractsofbehaviourcanberemovedbyassociatingthemwith unsatisfyingdesirablecondition.
3.Theactsofrewardingandpunishingtakethislawintoconsideration.
4.Behaviourproblemscanbeimprovedbyassociatingthemwithannoyingstateofaffairs.
5.Interestisdirectlyrelatedtothislaw.Childrengetinterestedinthingswhichbringpleasant results.
LawofRecency
Recencyoccurrencesaremostvividinourmind.Theprocessofforgetfulnesssetsinasmore andmoretimeiselapsed.Werememberthesethingsbetter,whicharecomparativelyrecent.
Thisemphasizestheimportanceofrevision.Thestudentsshouldreviseoccasionallysothat thethingsareagainrefreshedintheirmind.Revisionshouldbedoneaftershortintervalsand
alsojustbeforetheexamination.Withoutrevisionastudentisapttoforgeteventhebest assimilatedmatter.
LawofIntensityofStimulus
Thestrongerthestimulus,thegreaterthelearning.Thus,ifstimulusisstrong,theresponsewill bestrong.Astudent,whoismoreseriousandenthusiasticabouthisstudies,willmakegreater progressandachievement.Themoreseriousandenthusiasticastudent,thegreaterthis achievement.
Thus,thefunctionoftheeducatoristoprovidegreaterstimulustothestudents.Settinghigh andloftyobjectivesbeforethestudentsprovestobegreatstimulant.Genuinepraiseand appreciationalsoactasgreatstimulants.Periodictestsandexaminationsalsoservethesame purpose.Thus,wemaysay‘thatthesuccessortheachievementofanindividualisdirectly, proportionaltostimulusortheinterestthathetakesinhiswork.
AIOU Solved Assignments 2 Code 8610 Autumn & Spring 2023
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Q.5.Howindividualdifferencesaremeasured?Discuss.
MEASUREMENTOFINDIVIDUALDIFFERENCES
Measurementistheassignmentofanumbertoanobjectoreventaccordingtorule.Thismay representsomethingphysical,aswhenyousteponthescalesandnote,withdismayor pleasurethenumberthatindicatesyourweight.Oritmaybemoresubtle,aswhenyoutakea vocationalaptitudetestandreceiveyourscoreinmedicalorengineeringaptitudetest.Inorder todrawmeaningfulcomparison,measurement,mustbemeaningful.Inordertohavemeaning, allmeasurementsmustsatisfytwobasiccriteria:theymustbereliableandtheymustbevalid.
(a)Reliabilityistheindicationoftheconsistencyofmeasurement,e.g:Ifyourweightreads 140Ibs,onedays,240poundthenextday,and40poundthedaysafter,yourfaithinthe precisionofthescalewouldbesecretlyshaken.Thesameistrueofpsychologicaltest.Our measurementsmustbeconsistentoverrepeatedtestsofmeasurement.Agoodtestshould yieldsroughlythesamescoresoverrepeatedmeasurements,aslongasthatwhichisbeing measureddoesnotchangedramatically.
(b)ValidityMeasurementsmustalsobevalid,validityisanindicationoftheextenttowhicha testmeasurewhatitissupposedtomeasure.
(c)CorrelationInordertogiveprecisestatementsaboutreliabilityandvalidity,astatistical techniquecalledcorrelationmaybeutilized.Itallowsscientiststomakepredictions;correlation isastatementaboutthestrengthoftheassociationbetweentwo(orpossiblymore)variables. Ifthecorrelationbetweentwovariablesishigh,thevariableswilltendtobeverytogether,thatis,
whereveroneofthetraitsisfound,chancesaregoodthattheothertraitwillalsobefound.Ifwe observethatpeoplewithblandhairusuallyhaveblueeyethenwewouldsaythatthereis correlationbetweenthevariableshaircolourandeyecolour.Thisisnottosaythathavingbland haircausesonetohaveblueeyes,butitdoesallowustopredict,wheneverweknowthat certainindividualshaveblandhair,thattheyarealsolikelytohaveblueeyes.Asdiscussed earlier,individualsdifferinsensitive,affectiveandpsychomotorabilities.Theydifferalmostin everyrespectpersonality,attitude,interest,intelligenceandachievement.Individualdifferences canbeidentifiedandmeasuredthroughfinermeasurementinstrumentsknowaspsychological test.Apsychologicalisapatternofstimuli,selectedandorganizedtoelicitresponseswhich revealcertainpsychologicalcharacteristicsinthepersonwhomakesthem.Thefollowing psychologicaltestscanbeusedbytheteacherorpsychologiststomeasuredifferenceamong individuals.
1TestofGeneralIntelligence
Sometimesthesetestsarealsoreferredtoastestsofmentalability,testsofgeneralabilityor testofscholasticaptitude,thesetestsmeasurethepsychologicaltraitstermedto“intelligence” whichprovidethebestpossiblesinglecluetotheunderstandingofchildren’sacademic performances.Therearevarioustestsofintelligencelikestandardbinetintelligencetest (revised),Wechslerintelligencescaleforchildrenandvariousculturefreeandculturefairtests.
2TestsofAptitude
Thesetestsmeasurethepossibilitiesofsuccessinfutureperformance.Oneofthemost famousbatteries,whichmeasurechildren’sdifferentaptitudes,is“differentialaptitudetest battery”whichmeasuresthefollowingabilities.
(i)VerbalReasoning
(ii)NumericalAbility
(iii)AbstractReasoning
(iv)SpaceRelations
(v)MechanicalReasoning
(vi)ClericalSpeedandAccuracy
(vii)LanguageUsage
3InterestInventories
StrongVocationalInterestBlank,andKuder’sPreferenceRecord(Vocational)aresomeofthe interestinventoriesthatcanbeusedtomeasuredifferencesamongindividualsintheirinterest.
4TestofPersonality
TheMMPI,BellsAdjustmentInventory,Projectivetestslike“RorschachInkBlottest.”Thematic Apperceptiontest,andotherquestionnairescanbeusedtomeasurepersonalitystructureand adjustment,anddifficultiesofindividuals.
5Competence-BasedTests
Testsofachievement,mostlyteacher-madetype,canbeusedtomeasureindividualdifferences inacademicachievement.Practically,thesetestsasarepreparedbyteachersdonotmeasure thecompetenceinlearningvarioussubjects.Thecompetencebasedtestsareanimprovement overthetraditionaltests,andarenotdifficulttopreparesuchtests.Oncetheteacherknowsthe learningcompetenciesinvariousschoolsubjectsitbecomeseasyfortheteachertoprepare suchtests.
Itmustbenotedthatscoresobtainedbyastudentinanyoneofthetestsmaynotbeasure measureofhisstandinginthegroup.Scoresontestsareinfluencedbyanumberoffactors, internalandexternaloperatingatthetimeoftakingthetest.Forthispurposescoresobtained byonetestcanbesupplementedbyscoresobtainedfromothersimilartests.
6Multiple-ChoiceTestsorEssays
Whataboutmultiple-choicetestsor,asmanypoorlypreparedstudentsliketocallthem, “multiple-guesstests?”Oneofthecriticismsofthemultiple-choicetestsisthatitrewardsrote memorizationratherthantrueunderstanding.Thiscancertainlyhappenifthetestispoorly designed,butwhenthoroughlyresearchedandcarefullyprepared,themultiplechoicetestcan assessaperson’sabilitytoapplyconceptstoproblemsolvingsituations.Ratherthanbreakup theunitsofknowledgeandisolatingthepieces,asthecriticstypicallycharge,awell-designed multiplechoicetest,suchasSAT,demandsthatthestudentsbeabletounderstandconcepts andbringfactstogether.ResearchevidenceclearlyshowsthattheSATverbalscoreshares muchincommonwithIQ,thecorrelationbetweenthembeinganextremelyhigh+0.80.
Whataboutessayquestions?Thereisthefearthatstandardizedtestsbasedonlyonessay questionsandwritingsamplesmayhaveanadverseeffectonlearning.Verballyadeptbut uninformedstudentsmayblufftheirwaythroughanessayexam.Similarly,thetacticsusedby somestudentsormemorizingorrottingthetopicsofsubjectsalsoaffectslearningprocess. Essaytypeexamshowever,illuminatethestudent’sthoughtprocessinmoredetail,as comparedtomultiple-choicetests.Butforateacher,withalargeclassofwidelyvarying abilities,interestsandneedsmayhavetorelyonthemultiplechoicetests.Itnotonlyensures reliabilityoftestingbutalsomoreimportantlyitpermitsfreetimetoworkwithindividual students.
7ComputerAssistedTesting(CAT)
ThecomputeragehasledtoahightechformoftestingcalledCAT.(ComputerAssisted Testing)Here,theindividualsitsatacomputerkeyboard,andthequestionsarepresentedon
thescreen.Thetestingbecomespersonalizedsincethetestingisinteractivewiththecomputer, ineffectcustomdesigningthetesttoeachstudent’sskilllevel.Forexample,thequestionmay getprogressivelymoredifficultuntilalevelisreached.Whenastudentbeginstogetthe questionswrong,aneasiersetofquestionssuddenlyappears.Thisbranchingofeasierand harderquestionscalledgoing“uptheladder”or“downthechute”continuesuntilthestudents truelevelofcompetencetoreach.TheeducationaltestingservicesofUSAarecurrentlyputting boththeSATandGRE(GraduateRecordExam)onacomputerformat.Manypeoplebelievethat CATisviable,cost-effectiveandabigimprovementoverpaperandpenciltesting.
8ThePortfolioApproach
Anothertestingtechnique,currentlygaininginpopularityiscalledtheportfolioapproach.Just asanaspiringartistormodelcarriesaportfolioofpastworktoaprospectiveemployer,sotoo doesthestudentwhoselectsexamplesofhisorherbestworkoveratermorevenanentire yearofstudy.Itissaidthattheportfolioapproachplacesmoreemphasisonastudent’soverall accomplishmentthanontheabilitymerelytoscorewellonasinglebatteryoftests.Typical portfoliosincludeoriginalpoetry,plan,shortstories,essayandartprojects.Eveninmath,a studentmightproduceaseriesoffractions,showingtheirrelationshipstodecimals,oran arrangementofdicetoillustrateprobabilities,orevenpresentanessayonthelifeofthe Prophet“Muhammad”(P.B.U.H).Attheendoftheyear,thestudenthandsovertheportfoliosto theteacherforevaluation.TeachersofthenewMillenniumshouldbemadeawareofthis approachandshouldbegivenworkshoppreparationinlearningthistechnique.
Theportfoliomethodcanalsobeusedtoevaluateteachers,studentsandthecurriculumitself. Aportfoliothatincludes,forexample,“samplesofstudent’steacherdevelopedplansand materials,videotapedteachingepisodes,andotherteacher’sreflectionsonhisorherown teachingcanprovidedirectevidenceofwhatateacherknowsandcando.
Whether,theportfolioapproachprovestobeasvaluableasitpromisesisstillinquestion,but thereisnodoubtthatnewtestingmethodswillbeemployedaseducationalpsychology operatesinthe23stcentury.Newtestingproceduresareonthehorizon,proceduresintendedto bridgethegapbetweencognitivepsychologyandpsychometricmethods.
9GradeEquivalentScores
Gradeequivalentscoresarebasedonrelatingagivenstudent’sscoreonatesttotheaverage scoresfoundforotherstudentsinaparticulargrade,atthesametimeofyears,andofroughly thesameage.Forexample,assumethatinSeptember,alarge,representativesampleoftheir graders(IIIclass,students)ofthemorninggroup,produceranaveragescoreof30onacertain arithmetictest.Ifagivenstudentisthentested,andreceivesascoreof30,thatchildwouldbe assignedagrade-equivalentscoreof3.0ofthechilddidsomewhatbetterthanthatandhada scoreofsay3.4,itwouldindicateaperformanceequaltoathirdgradestudentinthefourth month(December)oftheschoolyear.Gradeequivalentscoresaretypicallyreportedintenths ofayear,sothatascoreof5.9referstotheninthmonth(June)ofthefifthgrade,andascore
of0.0tothefirstdayofKindergarten.Thus,thescoresrangefrom0.0(orsometimesko) through12.9,representingthethirteenyearsofschoolfromKindergartenthroughgrade12.the firstofSeptemberisgivenonthescoreas0,whereastheendofSeptemberas0.1,theendof Octoberas0.2andonuntiltheendofJuneas0.9.anoteofcautioninthissystemis.
(a)Childrendonotallgrowanddevelopatthesameyearlyrate,nevermindthesamemonthly rate,sodon’tbeoverlyconcernedwhenaseeminglybrightchildsuddenlyunderperformsthe normsofafewmonths,thatsamechildmayquicklycatchupandevenoutperformthenorms severalmonthslater.
(b)Don’tbetooquicktouseaprecociouschild’shighscoreinsameareaasareasontohave thatchildskipagradeortwo.Athirdclass(grader)mightevengetagradeequivalentof7.0on agiventest.Thisdoesn’tmeanthatthechildisnowreadyforafastpromotiontoclass-7th. Whatitdoesmeanisthatthethirdgraderhascertainlyenquiredthird-gradematerialandinfect hasdoneaswellasaseventhgraderwhenmeasuredonathird-gradetest.However,thereare manythingsthe7thgraderhaslearnedandisexpectedtoknowwhicharesimplynotevenpart ofathird-grader’sconsciousnessandwhichdon’tappearonathirdgradetest.
10CurriculumTesting
Virtuallyanycurriculumthatismorethanfiveyearsoldrequiresathoroughevaluation,thisis mostobviousinfieldsuchasscience,butshouldbedoneinallareas.Thistypeoftesting shownanswersthefollowing:
(a)Towhatdegreehavethecurriculum’sgoalsbeenreached?
(b)Isthecurriculumcontentappropriateinviewofthemission’sobjectives.
(c)Hastheinstructionbeentrulybasedonthecurriculum.
(d)Hastheassessmentmeasuredthetaughtcurriculumorplanned
AIOU Solved Assignments 2 Autumn & Spring 2023 Code 8610
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